Biotechnology and environmental stresses
Maryam Lotfi Sarabi; Reza Fotovat; Ehsan Mohseni Fard
Abstract
Introduction
The yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), is greatly reduced under environmental stress and decreased temperatures. Therefore, adaptation mechanisms and cold resistance are crucial in this plant. Vernalization is known as one of the essential mechanisms for grain adaptation to environmental ...
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Introduction
The yield of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), is greatly reduced under environmental stress and decreased temperatures. Therefore, adaptation mechanisms and cold resistance are crucial in this plant. Vernalization is known as one of the essential mechanisms for grain adaptation to environmental conditions, whereby the plant can accelerate the flowering process or flower after a long cold period. Vernalization also plays a significant role in the acquisition of cold resistance in wheat plants. When exposed to low temperatures, certain genes related to vernalization are activated, leading to changes in the plant's physiology and allowing it to a better cold stress tolerance. This process involves complex regulatory mechanisms depending on the cultivar and environmental conditions. Understanding the molecular basis of vernalization and the genes involved in cold resistance could assist in developing new strategies to improve wheat productivity in adverse environments.
Materials and methods
In this research, we investigated the expression of three genes, NAC, ERF, and TCP, related to vernalization in two wheat cultivars named Baz and NorthStar, which known as spring and winter cultivars, respectively. The plant samples were preserved in growth racks and applied for vernalization treatment after the tillering stage. RNA extraction was performed at this stage. Real-Time PCR technique was then utilized to analyze the gene expression. To better understanding the function of these genes in response to cold stress, the promoter of the three studied genes was analyzed by screening 500 nucleotides upstream of the wheat TSS. The vernalization treatment was applied at two levels of 14 and 21 days and compared to the control plants under 4°C.
Results and discussion
The results showed that the expression of all three genes (TCP, NAC, and ERF) decreased under the vernalization treatment. However, the expression of the TCP and NAC genes increased after 14 and 21 days of treatment in the NorthStar and Baz varieties, respectively. In general, the decreased level of expression was shown by increasing in the number of vernalization days. Notably, the expression of the ERF gene reduced in both tested varieties with the increased number of vernalization days. This trend was also observed in the expression of the NAC gene. However, the vice versa was observed for NAC gene in the Baz variety by an increased expression. In the Baz variety, the expression rate of the TCP gene decreased with an increase in the number of vernalization days, whereas in the NorthStar variety, the gene expression increased and then decreased after 14 and 21 days of treatment. Based on the abundance and diversity of the identified elements resulting from the analysis of the promoters of the studied genes, 28 types of regulatory elements were identified, many of which are binding sites for transcription factors responding to biotic and abiotic stresses Top of Form.
Conclusion
Despite the similarity of the pattern of expression changes of all three genes in the two investigated cultivars, the intensity of the changes in the two cultivars was not same, which could be due to different reactions to cold stress. The results show the complexity of gene expression regulation in wheat vernalization. Additionally, the multiplicity of stress-responsive transcription factor binding sites in the promoter region of these genes could be a justification for the complexity of regulating their expression during vernalization and response to cold stress.
Physiology of crops under stress conditions
Fatemeh Hedayati; Nasibeh Pourghasemian; Mehdi Naghizadeh; Roohola Moradi
Abstract
Introduction
Marigold (Calendula officinalis L.) is an annual plant in the Asteraceae family that has been cultivated for ornamental purposes for many years. However, the plant's medicinal properties have also been identified and it is now commonly used for medicinal purposes. The most abundant compounds ...
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Introduction
Marigold (Calendula officinalis L.) is an annual plant in the Asteraceae family that has been cultivated for ornamental purposes for many years. However, the plant's medicinal properties have also been identified and it is now commonly used for medicinal purposes. The most abundant compounds found in marigold are phenolic compounds, including flavonoids and phenolic acids, as well as saponins. The biosynthesis of secondary metabolites in plants is heavily influenced by environmental factors, which are known to significantly affect both the quantity and composition of these compounds. Environmental factors can be present in varying conditions, sometimes in levels that are optimal for plant growth and sometimes in levels that are stressful and can negatively impact plant growth and development. A substantial portion of the earth's arable land, approximately 6%, is affected by salinity, which can lead to oxidative stress in plants. Although, zinc is an essential micronutrient required for plant growth, excessive levels of this element can be toxic and result in oxidative stress, ultimately leading to plant death. There are various methods to mitigate the impacts of metal toxicity and salinity stress on plants, and one effective approach is the use of biochar as a soil amendment. Beeswax waste has recently been identified as an organic material, and studies have shown that it is a nutrient-rich substance that can be applied as a fertilizer. Given the dual importance of marigold as both a medicinal and ornamental plant, the present study aimed to explore the potential of beeswax waste biochar in mitigating the negative impact of salinity and zinc stress on this plant species. Furthermore, the study aimed to investigate the effects of varying concentrations of zinc, ranging from low to high levels, on the growth and development of marigold. The study also examined the synergistic effects of zinc and salinity on marigold growth, as well as the role of both high and low concentrations of zinc under saline conditions and in the presence of different biochar levels.
Materials and methods
To investigate the impact of beeswax waste biochar application on marigold growth under salinity and zinc stress, a factorial experiment was conducted using a completely randomized design with three replications. The experimental factors included two levels of salinity stress (control EC=1 dsm -1; salt stress with EC=6 dsm-1), four levels of zinc element (control, 300, 1500, and 3000 mgkg-1 soil), and three levels of beeswax waste biochar (control, 1.5%, and 3% ww-1). Biochemical traits, including photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a, b, and total), phenol, flavonoid, anthocyanin, catalase, and ascorbate peroxidase enzymes, were measured three months after planting. Yield traits, such as biomass and flower dry weight, were measured approximately four months after planting, when the plants exhibited signs of decline.
Results and discussion
The results of the experiment revealed that salinity and zinc stress significantly reduced the biomass, flower and root dry weight, and height of marigold plants compared to the non-stress condition. Among the treatments, the highest amount of biomass and dry weight of flowers were observed in the control treatment (without salinity stress) with 300 ppm of zinc and 1.5% biochar, which were 9.83 gr and 1.59 gr, respectively. Conversely, the lowest values were observed in the treatment with 6 dSm-1 salinity and 1500 ppm of zinc concentration without biochar, which were 1.8 gr and 0.27 gr, respectively. Although the amount of photosynthetic pigments and secondary metabolites, such as phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and anthocyanins, decreased compared to the non-stress condition, the activity of catalase and ascorbate peroxidase enzymes increased under salinity and zinc stress compared to the control treatment. Furthermore, the application of biochar in plants under salinity and zinc stress conditions increased vegetative traits, improved photosynthetic pigments, secondary metabolites, and antioxidant enzymes compared to the condition of not applying biochar.
Conclusion
Low zinc concentration had a positive impact on marigold growth, but concentrations higher than 300 ppm resulted in toxicity and stress. Salinity and zinc stress caused a decrease in growth characteristics, photosynthetic pigments, and secondary metabolites. Remarkably, the application of biochar, even in the presence of salt stress with 300 ppm zinc concentration, improved the growth and biochemical characteristics of marigolds.
Drought stress
Sepideh Tarrah; Hamid Dehghanzadeh; Mojtaba Jafarzadeh Kenarsary
Abstract
Introduction
Drought stress, as the most important abiotic stress, plays an important role in reducing crop production. Wheat is the most important crop in Iran. In arid and semi-arid regions, it is very important to obtain cultivars that have more tolerance to water limitation and water deficit irrigation. ...
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Introduction
Drought stress, as the most important abiotic stress, plays an important role in reducing crop production. Wheat is the most important crop in Iran. In arid and semi-arid regions, it is very important to obtain cultivars that have more tolerance to water limitation and water deficit irrigation. By achieving such cultivars and determining their tolerance to low irrigation, it is possible to prevent the loss of water resources to a large extent and at the same time obtain a suitable yield in the conditions of water limitation. Although genetic improvements in grain yield under favorable and stress conditions have been clearly seen over the past few decades, the search for genetic differences and more effective selection criteria, especially under stress conditions, should be continued. Investigating the effects of different irrigation regimes in different phonological stages on wheat grain yield and introducing the best irrigation regime for this crop in the dry weather conditions of Aran Va Bidgol region are the main aims of this research.
Materials and methods
In order to evaluate the effect of drought stress on yield, yield components and some physiological traits of three bread wheat cultivars, the experiment was conducted during 2013-2014, in Aran va Bidgol province. A split factorial experiment based on randomized complete block design with three replications was used. The main plots considered irrigation regimes (irrigation after 60, 95 and 130 mm cumulative evaporation from class A evaporation pan), and sub-plots considered two growth stage (from elongation to heading and from heading to ripening) and three wheat cultivars (Sepahan, Roshan Back-Cross and Kavir) as factorial. Sowing was done by hand with a density of 400 seeds per square meter. Weeds were controlled by mechanical method. In the stages of elongation, heading, pollination and grain filling, the amount of water consumed in each irrigation was estimated for the main plots and was introduced to the plots during irrigation. The SPSS software was used to analyze the data. If the effect of the experimental factor was significant, the LSD test was used at the 5% probability level to compare the means.
Results and discussion
Results showed that delay in irrigation from 60 to 130 mm cumulative pan evaporation significantly reduced plant height, number tiller, yield and yield components, harvest index, relative water content, leaf chlorophyll content and increased the wax of coticule and water use efficiency. Irrigation after 90 and 130 mm cumulative evaporation from class A evaporation pan decreased grain yield 12 and 41.8 percent compared controlled, respectively. The reduction of water consumption in mild and severe stress treatments compared to the control treatment was 20 and 43%, respectively. Applying drought stress from the heading to ripening, led to a greater decrease in grain yield and harvest index compared to applying stress from the elongation stage to heading. The Kavir, Sepahan and Back-cross Roshan cultivars had the highest to the lowest grain yield, with 3941, 3868 and 3757 kg. ha-1, respectively. The Kavir cultivar had low plant height, high the wax of coticule (both control and stress conditions), resume high relative water content (both control and stress conditions), high leaf chlorophyll content, harvest index and water use efficiency, caused to higher grain yield.
Conclusion
It was concluded that by irrigation the Kavir wheat cultivar after 95 mm cumulative pan evaporation from elongation to heading, water could be saved by 20% with 12% loss in grain yield under these conditions.
Breeding plants for stress conditions
Solmaz Azizi; Nasser Zare; Parisa Sheikhzadeh; Javanshir Azizi; Rahmatollah Karimizadeh
Abstract
Introduction
Drought stress is one of the most important abiotic factors that can limit plant growth and yield. The response of plants to water limitation has been evaluated based on genetic, biochemical, and morpho-physiological traits. Plants are constantly affected by drought stress and re-irrigation. ...
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Introduction
Drought stress is one of the most important abiotic factors that can limit plant growth and yield. The response of plants to water limitation has been evaluated based on genetic, biochemical, and morpho-physiological traits. Plants are constantly affected by drought stress and re-irrigation. Therefore, rapid and efficient recovery from water deficit stress may be one of the key determinants of drought adaptation in plants. The aim of this research was the evaluation of drought stress tolerance and recovery in lentil cultivars after stress conditions.
Materials and methods
In order to evaluate the response of lentil cultivars to drought stress and re-irrigation, a factorial split-plot experiment based on a randomized complete block design with three replications was conducted in the greenhouse. Drought stress was applied at the flowering stage. The factors include 4 lentil cultivars (Namin landrace and Sepehr, Gachsaran, and Kimiya cultivars), drought stress (control (irrigation at 80% FC), medium stress (irrigation at 55% FC) and severe stress (irrigation at 30% FC)) and 3 sampling times (three and six days after drought and recovery (two days after re-irrigation)). All the plants were allowed to grow until the flowering stage (50 days after sowing) under well-watered conditions (80% FC (field capacity) of soil). Afterward, the plants were randomly assigned to three different groups and were exposed to different irrigation regimes including the control (well-watered and maintained at 80% FC), medium stress (watered and maintained at 55% FC), and severe drought stress (watered and maintained at 30% FC). The moisture content of the soil was controlled and maintained within a defined range using the weight method. Stress conditions were kept until the crop maturity and harvesting stage. The leaf samples from 5 seedlings of each pod were collected at 3 and 6 days after drought stress exposure, and two days after re-irrigation and used for physiological and biochemical analysis. The samples immediately were frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at −80°C until analysis.
Results and discussion
The results showed that adaptation to drought stress was closely related to the recovery ability of plants. Drought stress caused a decrease in chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, carotenoid, protein and proline, yield, and yield components. The reduction of these traits was more remarkable at six days after stress. However, during the recovery time remarkable increase was observed in these traits. The results showed that the correlation between H2O2 and MDA was significant and positive. Furthermore, drought stress increased the amount of H2O2 and MDA, which increased the activity of antioxidant enzymes (catalase, polyphenol oxidase, and peroxidase). An increase in the intensity and duration of the drought stress also caused an increase in proline (63%), H2O2, (19%), and MDA (110%) content, and the activity of CAT (33%), PP0 (56%), and POX (24%) compared to the control treatment. An increase in the intensity and duration of the drought stress also caused an increase in H2O2 and MDA content and the activity of antioxidant enzymes. In addition, in the recovery conditions, a significant reduction in the destructive effects of stress (H2O2, MDA content) and the activity of antioxidant enzymes was visible. The results of the present study indicated that the effects of drought stress on lentil cultivars' yield and yield components (seed numbers, number of pods, 100-seed weight, and seed yield) were varied. Drought stress at the flowering stage decreased the number of seeds (20%) and pods per plant (37%), and 100-seed weight (16%), which led to 29% yield losses. Although the Gachsaran cultivar had the highest yield under normal conditions. However, under drought stress conditions Gachsaran and Sepehr cultivars showed the highest plant yield. On the other hand, the Namin landrace exhibited the lowest yield (40%) under stress conditions.
Conclusion
The water stresses markedly increased the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and impaired the biosynthesis of the photosynthetic pigment, resulting in the reduction of plant growth and yield with fewer seeds and pods number per plant. However, re-irrigation (recovery) remarkably improved plant growth and reduced the negative effects of drought stress, such as reducing the amount of MDA and H2O2 and improving the activity of antioxidant enzymes and proline content. In conclusion, based on physiological traits Gachsaran, and Sepehr cultivars seem to be suitable cultivars for culture in the regions challenged with water deficit stress.
Breeding plants for stress conditions
Maryam Harati Rad; Nafiseh Mahdinezhad; Reza Darvishzadeh; Barat Ali Fakheri; Mitra Jabbari; Sorour Arzangh
Abstract
Introduction
Maize is a fast-growing plant that absorbs a lot of nutrients from the soil, indicating the need for the availability of various nutrients, including micronutrients, during its growth and development. Zinc is one of the most important micronutrient elements for this plant, which has many ...
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Introduction
Maize is a fast-growing plant that absorbs a lot of nutrients from the soil, indicating the need for the availability of various nutrients, including micronutrients, during its growth and development. Zinc is one of the most important micronutrient elements for this plant, which has many roles. Zinc deficiency is one of the global problems for grain production, and the genotype of the plant has a major effect on the absorption of zinc from the soil or the use of zinc inside the plant. Investigations have shown that the accumulation of micronutrients in seeds is genetically controlled. Knowledge on genetic diversity, in addition to preserving the genetic reserves of plants, also helps to use them effectively and better in plant breeding programs. Study of genetic diversity is a process that reveal any difference or similarity among species, populations or individuals using special statistical methods and models on molecular or morphological traits.
Materials and methods
In this research, 95 maize inbre lines were assessed under optimum and zinc deficiency conditions using α-lattic design with two replications in Zabol Agriculture and Natural Resources Research Center, during 2 successive crop years (2020 and 2021). The investigated lines were obtained from Razi University of Kermanshah, Khorasan Razavi Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Education Center and Seed and Plant Improvement Institute. Zinc treatment was applied before the beginning of the reproductive stage at the stage of 4, 6 and 10 leaf stages. Zinc fertilizer was added to the ground along with water in the early hours of the day (due to low air temperature). For each genotype in each experimental unit, five plants were randomly selected and the desired traits were measured. The number of 29 traits, including phenological, morphological and yield-related traits were measured. Combined analysis of variance of the studied traits in both environments was performed using SAS 9.4 software. Stepwise regression was performed using the "olsrr" package based on Pearson's correlation coefficient; calculated using the "corrplot" package in R software. Also, in order to more accurately interpret the results of correlation and stepwise regression, path analysis was performed on the traits entered into the final regression model in PATH 2 software. Hierarchical clustering by Ward's method on standardized data was conducted by "cluster and factoexta" packages. Factor analysis were conducted in R software by means of the "FactoMineR" package.
Results and discussion
The results showed that there is a significant statistical difference among the studied lines in terms of all the investigated traits. Based on step-by-step regression and path analysis, the number of seeds in the cob and the weight of 100 seeds were determined as important traits affecting economic yield under optimum and zinc deficiency conditions. By cluster analysis, the studied lines were classified into 5 and 4 clusters, respectively, in terms of the investigated traits under zinc deficiency and optimal (normal) conditions. Based on mean comparison of investigated traits in clusters of the hierarchical method, 11 lines in the first cluster (Ma001, Ma023, Ma039, Ma043, Ma044, Ma057, Ma062, Ma065, Ma100, Ma112, Ma117) were identified as sensitive genotypes to zinc deficiency conditions. Thirty lines with the highest values for most of studied traits including Ma004, Ma006, Ma015, Ma017, Ma018, Ma019, Ma020, Ma021, Ma027, Ma030, Ma031, Ma032, Ma035, Ma038, Ma049, Ma055, Ma064, Ma072, Ma075, Ma096, Ma098, Ma104, Ma105, Ma107, Ma108, Ma111, Ma114, Ma123, G703, Simon in the fourth cluster were identified as tolerant genotypes to zinc deficiency conditions. The results of principal component analysis confirmed the results of cluster analysis. In optimum conditions, the first seven components and in zinc deficiency conditions, the first eight components had eigenvalues greater than one, which in total explained 79.77% and 78.99% of proportion of total variance, respectively.
Conclusion
The results showed that there is a wide diversity among the studied lines in terms of traits related to the seed yield in both optimum and zinc deficiency conditions, which is valuable for the exploitation of these lines in order to developing tolerant lines to withstand zinc deficiency stress. In this regard, in order to obtain hybrids tolerant to zinc deficiency with higher economic performance, it is suggested to cross tolerant lines in this research to benefit from the phenomena of transgressive segregation and heterosis.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the esteemed Research Deputy of Zabol University for the financial support provided for this project, identified by the code UOZ-GR-158-3014.
Breeding plants for stress conditions
Maesomeh Salehi; Farhad Dehghani; Yousef Hasheminejhad; Alidad Karami; Sardar Keshtkar
Abstract
Introduction
Quinoa is a dicotyledonous plant from the Amaranthaceae family. Due to the high nutritional value, several breeding programs have been started on quinoa in different parts of the world. The goals of the breeding programs are to increase yield, reduce sensitivity to day length, increase ...
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Introduction
Quinoa is a dicotyledonous plant from the Amaranthaceae family. Due to the high nutritional value, several breeding programs have been started on quinoa in different parts of the world. The goals of the breeding programs are to increase yield, reduce sensitivity to day length, increase seed size, reduce seed saponin content, and resistance to powdery mildew and seed color. The purpose of this research is to select high-yielding and adapted quinoa lines using different parametric and non-parametric methods.
Materials and methods
The advance quinoa line NSRCQ8 (B), NSRCQ7 (C), Sadoq (D), NSRCQ9 (E) with the Titicaca as control (T) in five regions, Yazd (Sadoq Salinity Research Farm, National Salinity Research Center), Sabzevar (Sabzevar Research Station), Shiraz (Khorameh), Bushehr (Ahram) and Iranshahr (Bampur) were evaluated in the form of randomized complete block design during two years 2019-2019. Planting date in Sabzevar was August 15 with irrigation water salinity of 2.8 and soil saturated extract salinity of 4.5 dS m-1, Yazd was 23th of Augest with irrigation water salinity of 12 and soil saturated extract salinity of 16.4 dS m-1, Shiraz on August 20 and in the second year, August 25 with irrigation water salinity of 11.2 and soil saturated extract salinity of 8.5 dS m-1 and Iranshahr on December 15 with irrigation water salinity of 2.8 and soil saturated extract salinity of 9 dS m-1 and Bushehr 22nd of November and in the second year on the first day of January with the irrigation water salinity of 6 and the salinity of the saturated soil extract of 10 dS m-1 and the planting date of the first year of Gorgan was the first of March without the need for irrigation. Yield and weight of 1000 seeds, saponin content and size of seeds were measured. The saponin content was determined using the method of Koziol, 1991. Bartlett's test was performed to check the uniformity of variance of environments and then statistical analysis was performed with SAS software. For the purpose of statistical analysis, line was defined as a fixed factor and year and place were defined as random factors, and the F test was performed according to the mathematical expectation of mean square of variation sources. Considering the significance of the interaction effect of genotype in year and place, stability analysis was done using different parametric and non-parametric methods with Stabilitysoft software.
Results and discussion
The results of combined analysis showed that the interaction effect of place and year on grain yield and foam height was significant. The interaction effect of line and place in year on measured traits was significant. The interaction effect of year and location on grain yield and foam height was significant. The results of simple mean comparison showed that the highest grain yield belonged to line D. The thousand kernel weight of line D was 2.6 g on average and 40% of the seeds were placed in the large class. The lowest loss percentage related to D line was 9%. Stability analysis with GGEbiplot method showed that line D is located at the top of the polygon and showed a high private adaptability with all environments except Bushehr in the first year. According to Wricke (1962) (Wᵢ²) line D was ranked 1. According to Finlay and Wilkinson's index (bᵢ), number less than one is the least sensitive to environmental changes, and line D had the lowest (0.9). Eberhart and Russell index (s²dᵢ) showed that line D was ranked 1. Line D is ranked 1 based on Shukla's index (σ²ᵢ). Total rank stability statistic (KR) as another measure to determine the stability of genotypes was presented by Kang. Based on this, the genotype with the lowest value is selected as the most stable. The lowest amount was observed in line D (2) and the highest amount was observed in line B (6). Based on the average of the total ranks, line D (1.44±1.09) had the most stability and line B had the least stability based on parametric and non-parametric indicators of stability. Based on the results of GGEbiplot method and non-parametric and parametric methods, line D had the highest performance and stability.
Conclusion
Evaluating parametric and non-parametric methods and GGEbiplot method showed similar results and led to the selection of D line. In addition to stability, this line had a yield of 800 kg ha-1 higher than Titicaca variety. The amount of seed saponin was half of that in Titicaca variety. Due to the stability and higher performance of this line, as well as the higher tolerance to salinity, this line was introduced and named as Sadoq variety. Also, in addition to the yield, thousand kernel weight and the amount of saponin were also affected by the environment.
Acknowledgments
This project has been carried out with the financial support of the Agricultural Research, Education and Promotion Organization. We appreciate all the provincial colleagues.
Salinity stress
Rostam Yazdani Biouki
Abstract
IntroductionSalinity is a major abiotic stress limiting growth and productivity of plants in many areas of the world due to increasing use of poor quality of water for irrigation and soil salinization. Soil and water salinity in semi-arid regions such as Iran have been important threats for plant growth ...
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IntroductionSalinity is a major abiotic stress limiting growth and productivity of plants in many areas of the world due to increasing use of poor quality of water for irrigation and soil salinization. Soil and water salinity in semi-arid regions such as Iran have been important threats for plant growth and agriculture. Distributed in semi-arid and arid parts of the world, ajwain, or sprague, (Carum capticum L.) is a medicinal and industrial plant of the Apiaceae family with white flowers and small brownish fruits. A good source of secondary metabolites, the seeds of ajowan have been used in food and pharmaceutical applications2. A variety of health properties was described for the ajowan seeds, which include antimicrobial, antioxidant, nematicidal, anti-inflammatory, carminative, and sedative effects.Materials and methodsWith the aim of estimation of some growth characteristics of the Ajowan in response to salinity stress, an experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with 3 replications in a pot in the greenhouse of the National Salinity Research Center during 2020. Experimental treatment includes water salinity levels 0.4 (control), 3, 6, 9 and 12 dSm-1. At the beginning of planting, all the pots were watered with city water until establishment and germination and reaching the desired density. And then to avoid introducing sudden stress to the plant, salinity treatments were gradually increased during a period of 20 days after planting according to each treatment. After 8 months after planting in the stage after flowering, some quantitative characteristics of the plant were measured as follows: plant height, fresh and dry weight of shoots, root dry weight, lateral stem number, relative water content, ion leakage, potassium and sodium of shoots. Analysis of variance of the data was calculated using SAS Ver 9.2 statistical software, and mean comparison was performed using the LSD test at the 5% probability level.Results and discussionThe results showed that all investigated traits were affected by different levels of salinity. As by increasing the salinity from the control treatment (0.4 dS.m-1) to a salinity of 12 dSm-1 caused a decrease of 63% in the height of the plant, 58% in the shoot fresh weight, 42% in the shoot dry weight, 47% in the root dry weight, 13% in relative water content and 45% in potassium. Also, increasing salinity from control treatment 0.4 to 12 dSm-1 caused an increase in the amount of sodium and ion leakage by 46% and 11.5%, respectively. In many studies, reports indicate a significant effect of salinity on the reduction of the growth characteristics of Ajowan plants. It seems that in the present study, with the increase in salinity stress level, plant height decreased due to the harmful effects of salinity. Correlation results showed that the highest effective traits on dry weight of shoot dry weight included potassium and ion leakage. One of the reasons for the decrease in dry matter was the increase in ion leakage and the decrease in potassium content of the plant, and correlation and regression studies also indicated a high correlation between ion leakage and potassium content with plant dry matter.ConclusionThe results indicated that the growth traits and related to the yield of the Ajowan decreased significantly with the increase in irrigation water salinity. Also, salinity stress significantly decreased the relative water content and decreased the amount of potassium and the ratio of potassium to sodium and increased the ion leakage and sodium percentage of the plant. Correlation and regression studies also indicated a high correlation between ion leakage and potassium content with plant dry matter. The changes in plant dry matter yield between other salinity levels, 3, 6, and 9 were not significantly different from plants under the control treatment. In general, we can recommend ajwain plant as one of the promising salinity-tolerant medicinal plants for further studies.
Drought stress
Pari Hasanvand; Golam Reza Zamani; Ali Akbar Maghsoudi Moud
Abstract
Introduction
Oilseeds are the second main source of human food after cereals. Safflower is an oilseed crop with favorable and unique characteristics that make it a valuable oilseed crop. Safflower due to having long roots and the high ability for absorbing water from deep soil layers, is considered ...
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Introduction
Oilseeds are the second main source of human food after cereals. Safflower is an oilseed crop with favorable and unique characteristics that make it a valuable oilseed crop. Safflower due to having long roots and the high ability for absorbing water from deep soil layers, is considered as a low water-tolerant plant; but after the rosette stage, it becomes more sensitive to water stress such that since the first signs of inflorescence emergence up to the middle of the grain-filling period, it shows more sensitivity to this kind of stress. Increasing need for oil production on one hand and increasing levels of drought due to world climatic changes on the other hand makes it necessary to seek for more water stress tolerant plants such as safflower with relatively high yield capacity under low water content areas. Meanwhile the area under cultivation of safflower should increase. Agricultural and environmental factors can affect safflower seed yield and seed oil content. Therefore, it is important to investigate different environmental factors and their effects on growth and yield performance of safflower plants. Limitations of water resources makes it more difficult to grow safflower plants. Furthermore increasing levels of per capita oil consumption in Iran indicates that oilseed production must increase. Therefore, One of the objectives of this research was to identify and evaluate species and cultivars resistant to water stress and to find the plant stages sensitive to water stress.
Materials and methods
In order to evaluate the effects of water stress on some morphological, yield and yield components of different safflower cultivars, an experiment was carried out as split plots based on randomized complete blocks design with three replications at the experimental field 56° 58' E; 30° 15' N; 1754 meters above sea level of Faculty of Agriculture, Shahid Bahonar university of Kerman, Iran during 2019-2020 growing season. Water stress applied at three levels including 40, 60 and 100% of full crop water requirement in the main-plots and 6 Iranian safflower cultivars including Faraman, Goldasht, Golmehr, Parnian, Padideh and Sina assigned to the sub-plots. Physical and chemical properties and nutrient elements content of the soil before planting were measured using samples taken from of 0-30 cm soil depth of experimental location. Seeds planted manually and plots fully irrigated immediately after planting. Thereafter, plants irrigated throughout the growth period based on the calculated values of the water requirement of the plant.
Results and discussion
Based on results, the treatment 40% of the plant water requirement had a significant reduction effect compared to other treatments of water stress on the studied traits in all investigated cultivars. The results Data analysis showed that water stress had not a significant effect on lateral branch number, but it causes a significant reduction in all traits, Including the plant height, number of heads per plant, number of seed per head, head diameter, 1000 seed weight, seed oil content, oil yield and seed yield. Significant differences found among cultivars in term of all other plant characteristics. Meanwhile, Highest values of 1000 seed weight (37.2 g), oil yield (461.8 kg.ha-1) and seed yield (1592.6 kg.ha-1) observed in Faraman cultivar. The Interaction effects between irrigation treatment and cultivar were significant in case of number of heads per plant, number of lateral branches, oil yield and seed yield. However, the Faraman cultivar had more grain yield potential in water stress conditions than the other investigated safflower cultivars.
Conclusion
Generally, results showed that the reaction of the six cultivars investigated in terms of plant height, number of heads per plant, number of seed per head, number of lateral branches, 1000 seed weight, head diameter, seed oil content, oil yield and seed yield were affected by water stress. The highest values of 1000 seed weight, oil yield and seed yield among the investigated safflower cultivars were related to Faraman cultivar. Meanwhile, cultivar Faraman showed higher seed yield potential under water stress conditions compared to the other cultivars. Therefore, to achieve higher yield, Faraman recommended to be grown under low soil water content condition.
Biotechnology and environmental stresses
Zohreh Hajibarat; Abbas Saidi; Zahra Hajibarat
Abstract
Introduction
Abiotic stresses can disrupt future food security, which simultaneously implies the importance of genotype screening in stressed environments. Drought and phosphorus stresses have great effects on the growth and development of maize. Soil dryness and phosphorus deficiency cause similar ...
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Introduction
Abiotic stresses can disrupt future food security, which simultaneously implies the importance of genotype screening in stressed environments. Drought and phosphorus stresses have great effects on the growth and development of maize. Soil dryness and phosphorus deficiency cause similar effects and illicit similar defence mechanisms in plants (Xia et al., 2021a). Drought and phosphorus stresses in the root zone can cause active oxygen accumulation in plants. In order to deal with excessive accumulation of active oxygen, plants activate their oxidative defence mechanisms through enzyme or non-enzymatic routes. Oxidative stress caused by excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species is one of the important physiological factors affecting plant growth and development under stress conditions. The sensitivity of genotypes to water deficit is different and they can be classified into two groups, tolerant or sensitive. Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most important crops in the world for food security, as it feeds millions of people. Abiotic stress can create significant challenges in maize production. The present study aimed to determine the effects of phosphate and PEG stresses on the physiological and biochemical traits in the maize cultivars.
Materials and methods
Measured traits in leaf and root tissues were analysed among five maize cultivars under PEG and phosphate stresses. Also, analysis of biochemical traits such as chlorophyll a/b and carotenoids in maize seedlings under PEG 20% and low phosphate were analysed. The five maize cultivars were exposed to PEG 20% and low phosphate stresses and sampled at two-time points after treatment (24 and 48 h). This experiment was carried out as a factorial experiment in the form of a completely randomized design with three replications. In this study, antioxidant enzymes such as catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, and peroxidase activity were measured in leaf and root tissues. Further, PCA, dandraogram and correlation of physiological traits, biochemical and morphological traits were analysed. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS. Differences across tissues were analysed using one-way ANOVA. Duncan’s test was used to compare the treatment means at P<0.05. Values represent the means of three replications per treatment. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and correlations were performed using SPSS 22.
Results and discussion
Based on the cluster analysis, the cultivars were grouped into three classes. The cluster I included Fajr, Paya, and Dehghan whereas, Kosha and Taha cultivars were placed in the clusters II and III, respectively. Also, there was a significantly positive correlation at the probability level of one percent between the content of chlorophyll a/b and root anthocyanin and total chlorophyll content. Correlation between biochemical and physiological traits is shown in Figure 2. The chlorophyll a showed a positive and significant correlation with total chlorophyll and carotenoid contents. The chlorophyll b showed a positive and significant correlation with total chlorophyll content and root anthocyanin. PCA was performed on physiological and biochemical traits to fully investigate the various factors that play essential roles in the drought indices. The cumulative contribution rate of the total changes of PC3 reached 97%. According to PCA analysis measured by correlation matrix and biplot analysis method, it was found that these parameters can be used to evaluate the response of maize genotypes to abiotic stresses under different environments. The relationships between biochemical traits and genotypes is shown graphically in two segments of PC1 and PC2.
Conclusion
Principal component analysis (PCA) and measured traits showed that Fajr, Paya, and Kosha cultivars can show high performance under studied stress conditions. In the present study, the Kosha cultivar was shown to be relatively water stress and low phosphate tolerant due to improved antioxidant, chlorophyll, and carotenoids activities under abiotic stresses.
Salinity stress
Mitra Jabbari; Nafiseh Mahdinezhad; Khaled Salimi
Abstract
Introduction
Salinity affects about 1.7 million hectares of agricultural land in Iran, which poses a serious challenge for wheat production, as the most strategic crop in the country. Therefore, identifying wheat genotypes with salinity tolerance and selecting effective traits for accelerating the breeding ...
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Introduction
Salinity affects about 1.7 million hectares of agricultural land in Iran, which poses a serious challenge for wheat production, as the most strategic crop in the country. Therefore, identifying wheat genotypes with salinity tolerance and selecting effective traits for accelerating the breeding process are crucial objectives.
Materials and methods
The experiment was aimed at assessing the response of 12 wheat cultivars to different levels of salinity using NaCl concentration as salt stress at early seedling stage under hydroponic conditions. A factorial experiment based on randomized complete block design with three replications was conducted at the research greenhouse of the Agriculture Faculty, University of Zabul, during the 2020 cropping seasons. 12 wheat cultivars (Shiraz, Falat, Durum, Gascogne, Mahdavi, Alvand, Cross Azadi, Roshan, Star, Tous, Hirmand and Cross Bolani) were irrigated with four concentrations of NaCl (0, 100, 200 and mM). The physiological and biochemical traits of wheat cultivars, including seedling fresh mass, ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase, proline, sodium, potassium, and potassium to sodium ratio (K+/Na+) were recorded at four weeks after seed germination.
Results and discussion
The results showed that the amount of ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase, proline and sodium in the leaves of wheat seedlings were increased with an increase in salinity level. In contrast, the seedling fresh mass, potassium content and K+/Na+ were decreased with an increase in salinity level. The increase of ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase activities, representing the main enzymatic H2O2 scavenging mechanism in wheat cultivars. In NaCl treated seedlings, Falat, Mahdavi and Cross Bolani cultivars showed higher ascorbate peroxidase than other cultivars tested. In contrast, high level of catalase was recorded in Alvand cultivar.
In the other hand, maintain the high level of proline and potassium to sodium ratio are the main mechanisms for tolerance to salinity in Shiraz and Roshan cultivars, respectively. Wheat cultivars showed different response to the increase in salinity level, while in Roshan, Mahdavi, Hirmand and Cross-Bolani cultivars, the increase in salinity level had less effect on the seedling fresh mass than other cultivars, but different patterns of changes in physiological and biochemical traits were observed in these cultivars. Salinity resistance in Mahdavi cultivar was directly related to the increase of ascorbate peroxidase and catalase, but on the other hand, in Roshan cultivar, salinity resistance was related to maintaining a high level of potassium to sodium ratio. Potassium uptake is vital for plant growth but in saline soils because of their shared transport system and physicochemical similarities, the sodium in the soil solution competes for uptake with potassium and can lead to potassium deficiency. The induced potassium deficiency inhibits growth because it plays a critical role in maintaining cell turgor, membrane potentials, and enzyme activities. In salt-tolerant cultivars of wheat such as Roshan, under salt-stress conditions, limiting sodium uptake and preventing potassium losses from the cell may help to maintain a potassium to sodium ratio in the cytoplasm that is ideal for plant metabolism. Accumulation of high amounts of proline is often related with the salt tolerance nature of crop cultivar and high proline accumulation in the salt–tolerant cultivar than in their salt–sensitive are reported previously. The regression coefficients indicated that seedling fresh weight (R2=0.89), potassium (R2=0.86) and the ratio of potassium to sodium (R2=0.69) were the most reliable predictors of the effects of increasing sodium chloride concentration. These variables accounted for a large proportion of the variance in the response variable and had significant p-values.
Conclusion
According to the results of this experiment, it can be concluded that seedling fresh weight, potassium, and the ratio of potassium to sodium are more suitable criteria for selecting among cultivars under salt stress conditions.
Cold stress
Arezoo Akbari; Vali Rabiei; Taher Barzegar
Abstract
Introduction
Physalis (Physalis peruviana L.) is a perennial plant belonging to the Solanaceae family, but it is grown commercially as an annual crop. Low temperature has been reported as one of the most restraining environmental factors for agricultural crops, particularly vegetables. Cold stress causes ...
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Introduction
Physalis (Physalis peruviana L.) is a perennial plant belonging to the Solanaceae family, but it is grown commercially as an annual crop. Low temperature has been reported as one of the most restraining environmental factors for agricultural crops, particularly vegetables. Cold stress causes symptoms such as wilting, reduced growth and photosynthetic rate, chlorosis, necrosis, discoloration, abnormal ripening, increased susceptibility to diseases, ion leakage from cell membranes, and changes in respiration and ethylene production in plants. Amino acids are one of the possible approaches that induce cold stress tolerance in plants. Phenylalanine is one of the essential amino acids that is used as a nutritional enhancer, amino acid injection, and complex amino acid preparation. Foliar application of amino acids such as L-phenylalanine during plant growth increased anthocyanins and phenolic compounds contents in grape and strawberry fruits and cysteine also contains sulfur as an amino acid which is widely present in bacteria, yeast, plants, animals and certain single cells. Spraying amino acids on plants is one of the modern methods. Selenium (Se) and its salts protect plants against biotic (pathogens and herbivores) and abiotic (ultraviolet rays, heavy metals, arsenic) stresses. Also, the findings showed that selenium can effectively stimulate the phenylpropanoid metabolic pathway and it has been specifically determined that it protects plants against biological stresses.
Materials and methods
In order to investigate the effect of low temperature stress during seedling growth stage, and foliar application of amino acids L-phenylalanine (Phe), L-cysteine (Cys) and sodium selenite (Se) on yield and fruit quality of Physalis (Physalis peruviana L.), an experiment was conducted in greenhouse and field of University of Zanjan. The seeds of physalis were sown in seedling trays contain peat moss. The seedlings were grown under normal conditions (25±2 °C/day and 20±2 °C at night with 60-65% RH). The different concentrations of Phe (0.75, 1.5 and 2.5 mM), Cys (0.25, 0.5, and 0.75 mM) and Se (0.25, 0.5, and 1 mg.L-1) was sprayed on the seedling at 4–5th true leaf stage and distilled water was used for control treatment. For the chilling stress treatment of seedlings, plants were transferred to the 4 °C climate chamber for 24 h and two days. The control group (plants without chilling stress) was grown under normal conditions (25±2 °C/day and 20±2 °C at night with 60-65% RH). Plants transplanted to the field and foliar sprayed three times (growth stage, flowering and fruit set stages) with amino acids and Se. Fruits were harvested with the change of calyx and fruit color from green to orange and total fruit yield estimated as a kg.ha-1. Also, chlorophyll and carotenoid contents of leaf, fruit carotenoid, titratable acidity, soluble solids contents, vitamin C ant antioxidant activity were investigated.
Results and discussion
The results showed that low temperature significantly decreased total chlorophyll and carotenoid contents of leaves, titratable acidity (TA) and carotenoid contents of fruit, and caused increases in total soluble solid content of fruit, but had no significant difference on fruit yield, vitamin C content and antioxidant activity. Foliar application of Phe, Cys, and Se increased yield and fruit quality. The highest fruit yield (11419.1 kg.ha-1) was obtained in with application of Cys 0.5 mM in plants under low temperature stress. The maximum vitamin C content was obtained in plants sprayed with Phe 0.75 and 1.5 mM under normal condition. Also, the highest fruit antioxidant activity (56.9%) was observed with application of Phe 0.75 mM in plants without cold stress compared to other treatments and plants under stress. The beneficial role of Se and amino acids in increasing antioxidant capacity might be attributed to enhancing antioxidant enzymes activity, phenolic compounds and carotenoids content, which have antioxidant activity.
Conclusion
Therefore, the use of these compounds specially Phe 1.5 mM, Cys 0.5 mM and Se 1 mg.L-1 are suggested to improve the performance and quality of the fruit under low temperature stress or non-stress conditions.
Salinity stress
Masomeh Nasiri; Babak Andalibi; Saeed Khomari; Esmaeil Goli Kalanpa
Abstract
Introduction
In many arid and semi-arid regions of the world, including Iran, soil salinization is considered an important obstacle to optimizing the use of agricultural lands. Salinity stress affects the main plant processes, including photosynthesis and the production of photosynthetic process, and ...
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Introduction
In many arid and semi-arid regions of the world, including Iran, soil salinization is considered an important obstacle to optimizing the use of agricultural lands. Salinity stress affects the main plant processes, including photosynthesis and the production of photosynthetic process, and with negative effects on these processes, it causes a decrease in plant production. Salicylic acid plays an important role in regulating plant growth, development, ripening and plant defense responses. Application of appropriate concentration of salicylic acid increases tolerance to abiotic stresses, thus not only reducing the destructive effects of stress but also increasing tolerance to biotic stress. However, the concentration of salicylic acid used and its method of application, including foliar spraying, depend on the plant species, and therefore contradictory results can be reported. One of the management strategies for improving the conditions of saline soils is the use of organic amendments, including biochar. In most of the studies, it has been stated that biochar increases the availability of micro and macronutrient elements (directly) and improves physical, chemical and biological characteristics such as increasing cation exchange capacity, dispersion, improving soil structure (indirectly), so increasing microbial biomass and improving soil fertility cased to increasing growth.
Materials and methods
The experiment was carried out factorial experiment in the form of a randomized complete block design with four replications. Factors include biochar in four levels (control without biochar, simple biochar 2.5% by weight in soil and biochar 25% modified with phosphoric acid and sulfuric acid by weight in soil) and salicylic acid foliar spraying in three levels (control, 0.5 and 1 mM) and soil at three levels (normal soil as a control, saline soil at two levels of 4 and 8 dS m-1). Salinity treatment was applied in two stages of planting, at the same time as the first irrigation and when the seedlings were fully established in the soil. To prepare modified biochar, 10 grams of biochar were added with 200 ml of phosphoric acid and one molar sulfuric acid. Foliar spraying with salicylic acid was done based on the determined levels, in two phases, early and late flowering. The desired traits were selected by choosing the number of plants randomly after applying the treatments, and the samples were weighed to evaluate the dry weight after drying in the oven.
Results and discussion
The results of variance analysis showed that the highest plant height in the first and second year of the experiment was obtained from the treatment of 0.5 and 1 millimolar salicylic acid, respectively, combined with the application of simple biochar of 2.5% by weight in the condition of no soil salinity stress. The application of 0.5 mM salicylic acid with biochar modified with phosphoric acid caused the highest number of leaves per plant in the absence of salinity. With increasing soil salinity concentration, the dry weight of bean plants decreased significantly. The application of biochar, especially simple biochar of 2.5% by weight, reduced the negative effects of salinity on these traits. In high soil salinity, the application of salicylic acid, especially combined with the application of simple biochar, improved the grain in the pod. The application of biochar modified with sulfuric acid in all treatments resulted in a significant decrease in grain yield; however, salicylic acid at different levels of salinity combined with the application of simple biochar showed a significant positive effect on grain yield. The highest level of salicylic acid with biochar modified with sulfuric acid showed negative results at different salinity levels on the number of root nodules and root dry weight.
Conclusion
By increase of soil salinity, the dry weight of bean plant decreased significantly, although at high concentrations with the application of biochar, especially simple biochar of 2.5% by weight, the negative effect of salinity on the plant weight decreased to some extent. The application of different levels of biochar in extreme salinity conditions not only did not improve the condition of this trait, but also caused a decrease in this trait compared to the absence of biochar application. Biochar, especially simple biochar, had a positive effect on increasing the number of pods in the plant in conditions of no salinity or moderate salinity. It was concluded that the positive and significant effects of different levels of salicylic acid on the morphological characteristics of the root, including its length, volume and weight, were particularly evident in high soil salinity stress.
Salinity stress
Khadijeh Sourazar; Raouf Seyed Sharifi
Abstract
Introduction
Salinity is a global challenge issue that is drastically reducing agricultural production. More than 800 million hectares of agricultural land suffer from soil salinity. Intense salinity stress may cause accelerated aging enzymatic and metabolic disorders of the plant. Salinity stress leads ...
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Introduction
Salinity is a global challenge issue that is drastically reducing agricultural production. More than 800 million hectares of agricultural land suffer from soil salinity. Intense salinity stress may cause accelerated aging enzymatic and metabolic disorders of the plant. Salinity stress leads to plant death by reducing photosynthetic carbon dioxide uptake and electron transport activity, chlorophyll degradation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, and membrane damage. Methanol is one of the simplest alcohols, which is oxidized in the form of formaldehyde and carbon dioxide in the plant, and is produced in the form of amino acids (serine and methionine) and carbohydrates in various tissues of three-carbon plants (C3). Plants treated with methanol can increase their net absorption rate. Vermicompost provides a great potential to enhance crop productivity besides protecting soil health and environmental sustainability. Its application also enhances the physico-chemical, as well as the organic properties of the soil. Vermicompost is a solid product of organic residues enriched with earthworms and other micro-faunas that provide a significant source of growth regulator hormones, degrading enzymes (such as chitinase, cellulase, lipase, amylase, and proteases), and some essential vitamins. The aim of this study was the investigation the effects of vermicompost and methanol on the activity of antioxidant enzymes, compatible osmolytes and some traits of triticale under saline conditions.
Materials and methods
An experiment was conducted as factorial based on randomized complete block design with three replications in greenhouse research of Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili during 2022. Experimental factors were included salinity in three levels (no salinity as control, salinity 50 and 100 mM by NaCl), application of vermicompost at two levels (without vermicompost as control and application of vermicompost) and methanol foliar application in three levels (foliar application with water as control, foliar application 15 and 30% volume). "Sanabad" cultivar was used. The seeds were placed in a cold incubator (model IKH.RI90) for 12 days at 2°C for vernalization. The amount of vermicompost used in this experiment was 6 tons per hectare (equivalent to 83.08 g.pot-1). In this study, activity of CAT, PPO, POD, soluble sugar, protein, proline, MDA, H2O2, EC, RWC and grain yield were investigated. Electrical conductivity (EC) values were measured using an electrical-conductivity meter (Mi 180 Bench Meter model). The activity of antioxidant enzymes (CAT, PPO and POD) by the method of Sudhakar (Sudhakar et al., 2001), the total protein content of the flag leaf by the Bradford method (Bradford, 1976), the content of soluble sugars by method of Dubios (Dubios et al., 1956), malondialdehyde content by Stewart and Beweley's method (Stewart and Beweley, 1980), proline content by Bates et al.'s method (Bates et al., 1973) and hydrogen peroxide content was measured by the method of Alexieva et al. (Alexieva et al., 2001) on the flag leaf at the flowering stage (61 BBCH). At plant maturity, five plants of each pot were randomly harvested to measure grain yield per plant. Analysis of variance and mean comparisons were performed using SAS9.4 computer software packages. The main effects and interactions were tested using the least significant difference (LSD) test at 0.05 probability level.
Results and discussion
The results showed that both application of vermicompost and foliar application of 30% volume of methanol under salinity 100 mM increased the activity of peroxidase (73.4%), polyphenol oxidase (89.6%), soluble sugar (20.3%), protein (38%), proline (101.9%) and relative water content (20.6%) in compared to no application of vermicompost and methanol under the same of salinity level. Application of vermicompost decreased MDA and H2O2 content (9 and 20% respectively) in compared to no application of vermicompost. Foliar application of 30% volume of methanol decreased MDA and H2O2 content (40 and 55% respectively) in compared to no methanol application. Maximum of grain yield was obtained in both application of vermicompost and methanol at 30% volume under no salinity.
Conclusion
Based on the results of this study, it seems that the application of vermicompost and methanol can increase the grain yield of triticale under salinity stress due to improving activity of antioxidant enzymes and compatible osmolytes.
Drought stress
Fatemeh Hosseini; Sayyed Saeed Moosavi; Mohammad Reza Abdollahi; Ali Sepehri
Abstract
Introduction: Wheat is the most important crop that occupies the most area under rainfed cultivation. Drought stress is the most important factor in wheat yield reduction. The scope of this stress is expanding day by day in the world. Drought resistance is a quantitative trait with a complex ...
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Introduction: Wheat is the most important crop that occupies the most area under rainfed cultivation. Drought stress is the most important factor in wheat yield reduction. The scope of this stress is expanding day by day in the world. Drought resistance is a quantitative trait with a complex phenotype that is affected by plant growth stages. Breeding requirements for resistance to drought stress in wheat are two factors: high genetic diversity among cultivated and wild genotypes of wheat and selection based on traits related to this resistance. One of the important strategies to deal with moisture stress is using wild relatives of wheat, especially the genus Aegilops, as one of the important gene sources containing genes for resistance to environmental stresses. Based on this limitation, the use of wild wheat relatives is one of the important goals of wheat breeding programs. This research aimed to evaluate the relationship between grain yield and 32 different phenological and agro-physiological traits in ten ecotypes of Aegilops tauschii which was carried out under moisture-stress conditions and for two period. Materials and methods: This study was conducted for two consecutive periods in the research greenhouse of the Faculty of Agriculture of Bu-Ali Sina University in Hamedan. In this study, 33 phenological, morphophysiological, and root traits were evaluated in ten ecotypes of diploid wheat Aegilops tauschii (2n=2x=14, DD) under drought stress conditions. These ten different ecotypes of Aegilops tauschii were collected from different geographical regions of Iran.The mentioned ecotypes were evaluated in a randomized complete block design with three replications. At first, the seeds of the plant samples were grown in seedling trays containing equal proportions of perlite and cocopeat. Then, for the vernalization of the plants, after the initial germination of the seeds, in the two-leaf stage of the seedlings, the culture trays were moved to a cold room with a temperature of 4 degrees Celsius for about 35 days. After this stage, the vernalized seedlings were transferred to 10 kg pots, containing a combination of agricultural soil, sand, and rotted animal manure at a ratio of 50, 25, and 25%. After transplanting, the pots were irrigated at 100 percent of the soil's field or pot capacity for about two weeks. Then, in order to apply drought stress treatment, the humidity of the pots was kept at 45% of the field or pot capacity until the plants were harvested, by weighted moisture method. Results and discussion: Economic yield has a positive and significant correlation (p≤0.01) with the traits of grain water use efficiency, peduncle length, plant harvest index, main spike weight, grain weight in main spike, number of fertile spikes per plant, thousand-grain weight, plant height, excited leaf water retention, number of grains per plant, peduncle weight and leaf surface index. This was despite the fact that most of the phenological and root traits had a significant negative correlation with grain yield. According to the stepwise regression results, the traits of grain water use efficiency and the number of fertile spikes per plant with a positive coefficient and the traits of root diameter and days to heading, with a negative coefficient, as the most important traits affecting grain yield, were entered into the regression model respectively. The results of the path analysis indicated that the trait of grain water use efficiency had the most direct and positive effect on increasing grain yield. Also, the trait of water use efficiency, through the trait of day to heading, had the most negative indirect effect on grain yield. Conclusion: According to our findings, the selection based on higher values of grain water use efficiency and the number of fertile spikes per plant and lower values of phenological and root traits may lead to improvement of wheat grain yield under drought stress conditions.
Interactions between abiotic and biotic stresses
Elaheh Seyfipour Naghneh; Najmeh Yarami; Abolfazl Azizian; Gholamhassan Ranjbar
Abstract
Introduction:
In the irrigated agriculture of Iran, the quantitative and qualitative limitations of water resources and consequently, drought and salinity stresses, always threaten crop production. This problem exists in most regions of the country. Sesame is one of the oilseed and industrial ...
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Introduction:
In the irrigated agriculture of Iran, the quantitative and qualitative limitations of water resources and consequently, drought and salinity stresses, always threaten crop production. This problem exists in most regions of the country. Sesame is one of the oilseed and industrial crops that is somewhat resistant to drought and salinity and its placement in the cultivation pattern can provide some part of the country's need for sesame production and oilseed crops. Sesame is known as the queen of oil seeds because of its high percentage and quality of oil and high properties for health. The aim of this study was to investigate the water productivity, leaf area index, and some physiological traits of sesame Oltan variety including canopy cover temperature, Chlorophyll index, and water potential under simultaneous drought and salinity stresses.
Materials and methods:
A factorial experiment in randomized complete block design was conducted in Research Farm of Ardakan University during the 2019 to 2020 growing season with three replications. Experimental factors were four salinity levels of irrigation water including 1.5, 4, 7, and 10 dS.m-1 and three drought levels with different irrigation intervals as 4, 8 and 12 days, respectively. During the growing season, leaf area index, canopy cover temperature, and chlorophyll index were measured for four times (35, 50, 65 and 85 days after sowing). Leaf water potential was also measured in the mid-growing season. Water productivity for grain production was also determined. Statistical analysis was done using SPSS version 22 software and averages were compared with Duncan's test at 5% probability level.
Results and discussion:
Results showed that the irrigation interval had a significant effect on the leaf area index, leaf water potential, grain yield, and water productivity. Irrigation water salinity had a significant effect on all of the studied traits, the interaction of the drought and salinity stresses was not only significant on SPAD index. Increasing the irrigation interval from 4 to 12 days and increasing water salinity from 1.5 to 10 dS m-1 decreased the maximum leaf area index of sesame by 49% and 58%, respectively. Also, an increase in salinity from 1.5 to 10 dS.m-1 resulted in 18% increase in leaf temperature, 40% decrease in SPAD index, and 17% decrease in leaf water potential. The increase in drought stress also had no significant effect on leaf temperature, while it caused 14% increase in SPAD index and 15% decrease in leaf water potential. Increasing the irrigation interval from 4 to 8 and 12-day caused a 67 and 68% significant decrease in grain yield, respectively. There was no significant difference in the grain yield of 8 and 12-day irrigation interval. Increasing the water salinity from 1.5 to 4, 7, and 10 dS.m-1 decreased the grain yield by 35, 80, and 96%, respectively. Increasing the irrigation interval from 4 to 8 and 12 days caused a 55 and 51% decrease in water productivity, respectively. This index decreased significantly (95%) by increasing water salinity from 1.5 to 10 dS.m-1.
Conclusion:
Water productivity and maximum leaf area index decreased significantly by increasing water salinity and irrigation interval. An increasing trend in leaf temperature was observed with increasing salinity, which is due to the decrease in plant transpiration under exposure to salinity stress. The SPAD index showed a decreasing trend with the increase in salinity, while the increase in drought stress (increasing the irrigation interval) caused an increase in this index. Sesame leaf water potential also decreased by increasing salinity and drought stresses. Generally, results showed that leaf area index and studied physiological traits of sesame were more affected by water salinity stress than drought stress. The results of interaction also showed that in all investigated traits, except for leaf water potential, no significant difference was observed between 8 and 12-day irrigation interval at all salinity levels. In 1.5 and 4 dS.m-1 salinity levels, the difference in grain yield and water productivity were significant in 4 and 8-day irrigation interval, while there was no significant difference in 7 and 10 dS.m-1 salinity levels. Although the highest grain yield and water productivity were observed in the 4-day irrigation interval and 1.5 dS m-1 salinity level treatment, based on the results of physiological traits, grain yield, and water productivity of sesame, especially under water shortage conditions, it is recommended to use 12-day irrigation interval instead of 8-day because there was no significant difference in the water productivity.
Cold stress
Fatemeh Mohamadi Azar; Omid Sofalian; Ali Asghari; Asghar Ebadi; Rahmatollah Karimizadeh
Abstract
Introduction
Wheat is one of the most important crops and an essential source of calories and protein in the world. Food security depends on agricultural production to supply the growing world population with certain nutrients. Plants are often exposed to stressful conditions. Stress can occur within ...
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Introduction
Wheat is one of the most important crops and an essential source of calories and protein in the world. Food security depends on agricultural production to supply the growing world population with certain nutrients. Plants are often exposed to stressful conditions. Stress can occur within minutes, days, or even months. Temperature is the most important environmental variable that affects the growth, development, and final productivity of agricultural grain products. Cold or freezing temperatures cause a lot of damage to agriculture, especially in cereal crops in subtropical and temperate regions. Most of the world's wheat fields are often under low-temperature stress. The ability of plants to tolerate cold without damaging their growth cycle is called cold tolerance. Crop plants, including wheat, tend to overcome cold stress through cold adaptation. In winter cereals, low-temperature stress in the vegetative stage causes chlorosis and wilting of leaves and eventually leads to necrosis and growth inhibition. Wheat needs an ideal temperature range for growth and ideal performance, and any deviation from it affects the natural growth process. In general, winter cereals like wheat have two varieties, sensitive to cold and resistant to cold. Numerous studies show that the intraspecies genetic diversity of wheat has not yet been fully exploited. The purpose of this study is to investigate the diversity of durum wheat lines under conditions of freezing stress, identify cold-resistant lines in durum wheat based on some morphophysiological traits, and determine the relationship between durum wheat traits and cold tolerance.
Materials and methods
Freezing and laboratory experiments were carried out in the greenhouse and plant breeding laboratory of Mohaghegh Ardabili University in 2019 on 45 durum wheat genotypes as a factorial experiment in the form of a randomized complete block design with three replications. In this experiment, four control temperature treatments (without freezing), -8, -10 and -12 degrees Celsius were investigated. LT50 of several applied temperatures (-8, -10, and -12), and by analyzing Probit was calculated for each genotype. The mean comparison was done with the LSD method at the five percent probability level. Lines grouping was done by Ward's clustering method using the square measure of Euclidean distance.
Results and discussion
The highest amount of LT50 trait was observed in genotype number 44, and the lowest amount was observed in genotype number 36. LT50, survival percentage, height, fresh weight of shoots, dry weight of shoots, saturated weight of shoots, number of leaves, relative water content, and electrolyte leakage were investigated. The correlation was calculated separately in stress levels. Lines with high height in terms of LT50 trait were also included in the group of resistant lines. Multivariate variance analysis based on unbalanced one-way variance analysis was used to determine the most favorable groups. The lines were placed in four groups in the control conditions, the stress of -8, and -12°C, and in five groups in the -10°C stresses. The traits of shoot weight, number of leaves, relative leaf water content and electrical conductivity had an important role in the average of the groups. Decomposition into factors was done in separate stress levels. Four factors were selected in control levels, and -8°C stress, and three factors were selected in the -10°C, and -12°C stress levels.
Conclusion
In general, lines 35, 40, and 44 were recognized as lines with higher averages in all clusters, and lines 4, 5, 6, and 20 were placed in groups with lower averages. The traits of shoot weight, number of leaves, relative leaf water content, and electrical conductivity had an important role in the average of the groups. According to the final results of the study, lines 17, 24, 27, 35, 38, and 40 were recognized as resistant lines. Lines 3, 12, 18, 20, and 44 were found to be sensitive.
Acknowledgments
We sincerely thank Gachsaran Agricultural Research Institute and Maragheh dryland Agricultural Research Institute for providing the studied lines seeds.
Salinity stress
Elham Afsharnia; Alireza KhavaninZadeh; Mehdi Karimi
Abstract
IntroductionWater and soil salinity is one of the most important environmental factors limiting the growth and performance of plants around the world, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. The increase in population on the one hand and the decrease of fresh water and soil resources on the other hand ...
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IntroductionWater and soil salinity is one of the most important environmental factors limiting the growth and performance of plants around the world, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. The increase in population on the one hand and the decrease of fresh water and soil resources on the other hand has doubled the necessity of studying in relation to the identification of salinity resistant plant species and strategies for the efficiency of saline soil and water resources. Therefore, this study was conducted with the aim of finding and determining the salinity resistance of artichoke plant species and the growth rate of the species under different conditions of irrigation water salinity and evaluating the performance of vegetative and physiological growth parameters in field conditions in order to use this plant in areas with limited water salinity.Materials and methodsIn order to evaluate the salinity resistance of the artichoke medicinal plant species and to determine the salinity resistance of this species, an experiment was conducted with six salinity levels including (control), 9, 12, and 15 dS m-1 in a completely randomized design and in three replications in potted conditions. Four weeks after applying salinity stress, traits including photosynthetic pigments, dried leaves, leaf water content, leaf dry weight, ash content, SLA were measured. Finally, significant difference at 5 percent level statistically were calculated among treatments using analysis of variance and mean differences was calculated using Multiple Duncan test.Results and discussionResults showed that salinity treatment has a significant effect on the characteristics of total chlorophyll, percentage of dryness and leaf fall, percentage of leaf ash, leaf specific weight and moisture content of leaves at the level of five percent, and the Artichoke plant can tolerate salinity up to 9 dS m-1 but it is sensitive at higher levels of salinity. In other words, the salinity of 12 dS m-1 has reduced the germination of Artichoke species by more than 50% and caused a significant increase in ash percentage, as well as drying and leaf fall percentage by 50%, and significant decreasing in leaf water content, dry root weight while it significantly increased electrolyte leakage which can indicate a significant decrease in vegetative growth and performance of this species at this level of salinity. According to the results, per unit increase in salinity, the weight loss of Artichoke leaves was recorded as 11%. In general, Artichoke plant species, in terms of resistance to salinity, it has a relatively good tolerance, and it seems this plant species can be used for cultivation and production by using saline water sources up to 9 dS m-1 in condition of the study area.ConclusionsThe results showed that there is no significant difference in yield and growth of Artichoke by increasing water salinity up to 9 dS m-1 in the study area. In farm and pod condition, experimental treatments showed a significant effect on increasing leaf fall, ash and water content, leaf dry weight by increasing water salinity to 12 dS m-1 . In general, Artichoke as an important medicinal plant, is a moderate up to tolerant species in salinity and it seems it is a proper species for cultivation and plant production in area with saline water up to 9 dS m-1 in condition of study area. According to the results, it seems water salinity up to 12 dS m-1 significantly decreases vegetative growth of the species up to 50% but it is a need more studies for impact of salinity on flowering and seeding stages as well. we recommend more studies in different climate conditions to reveal impact of these conditions on salinity resistance of the plant species.AcknowledgementsWe thank the National Salinity Research Center for their cooperation in the implementation and providing water and land for experiments in this study.
Drought stress
Hamid Najafinezhad; Mohammad Ali Javaheri; Nader Koohi
Abstract
IntroductionLack of fodder for feeding livestock is one of the main problems of dry areas, especially in the southern regions of Iran. In this situation, the climate changes and the decrease of rainfall in the southeast of the country in recent years, have doubled the important of compatible plants with ...
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IntroductionLack of fodder for feeding livestock is one of the main problems of dry areas, especially in the southern regions of Iran. In this situation, the climate changes and the decrease of rainfall in the southeast of the country in recent years, have doubled the important of compatible plants with the potential to produce fodder in water shortage conditions. Fodder cactus is a drought-resistant plant that adapts to dry and low-water conditions as a source for fodder production in dry areas. This research was conducted to explore the effect of drought stress on yield, water productivity, and some agronomic characteristics of cactus as a new crop in the climatic conditions of Shahmaran region of Kerman, Iran. Materials and methodsThe experiment was carried out in the form of randomized complete block design with four replications. Three treatments of normal irrigation, moderate and severe drought stress were considered based on 160, 210 and 260 mm cumulative pan evaporation. The cladodes (Opuntia ficus-indica) used for planting, originating from Tunisia. In each plot, 32 cladodes were planted at a distance of 2 meters between rows and 1.5 meter between cladodes on a row. At the time of irrigation of each treatment, volumetric soil moisture was measured at the active depth of root development using a calibrated Time-Domain Reflectometry device (Trime-FM, IMKO, Ettlingen, Germany). To calculate the fodder yield of cactus, the cladodes produced on plants in each plot were harvested and weighed. For measuring the length, width, and thickness of the cladode in each plot, 10 cladodes were randomly selected, and the average of each trait was finally determined. Results and discussionThe number of pads produced under the influence of drought stress was significant. The highest number of pads per plant was observed in the normal irrigation treatment (27.7 pads per plant) and the lowest in the severe drought stress treatment (15 pads per plant). The maximum thickness of the pad under normal irrigation condition was 2.4 cm and the minimum thickness was observed under severe drought stress condition. The main reason in reducing the thickness of the pad in water stress condition was the decreasing of the pad moisture content.The effect of drought stress on the length and width of the pad, was significant. Minimum length and width of the pad was observed with 29.5 and 18 cm in severe drought stress treatment and the maximum with 37.7 and 24.7 cm in normal irrigation treatment.The percentage of pad dry matter at the time of sampling was significantly affected by water stress treatments. The dry matter percentage was the lowest in the normal irrigation treatment with 8% and the highest in the severe water stress treatment with 12.7%.The weight of the each pad and the yield of wet and dry fodder per hectare were significant under the influence of different water stress treatments. The wet weight of the pad per plant was the highest in the normal irrigation treatment with 1245 g and the lowest in the severe water stress treatment with 870 g. Normal irrigation treatment produced the highest yield by producing 112 and 8.97 t.ha-1 of fresh and dry fodder, respectively. The lowest wet and dry yield belonged to severe water stress treatment with production of 46.77 and 6.05 t.ha-1.The highest water productivity for wet and dry cactus fodder was 41.02 and 3.29 kg m-3 respectively, which belonged to the normal irrigation regime. There was no significant difference between moderate and severe water stress treatments for dry fodder in terms of water productivity. ConclusionOverall, the research results showed that drought stress has a significant effect on fodder yield, water productivity, cladode thickness, cladode length and width, cladode weight, and crude protein of cactus fodder. Despite the physiology of the cactus and its resistance to water stress, with the increase of drought stress, the wet and dry yield, water productivity, and fodder protein content showed a significant decline. According to the results, reduction of 58.2% in wet fodder yield and of 32.5% in dry fodder yield were seen in severe drought stress treatment compared to normal irrigation. The average water consumption was 2507.6 m3.ha-1. According to the results, in order to benefit from the potential of the cactus to produce fodder, it is necessary to avoid long-term and severe drought stress. The vegetative growth period of cactus was mainly found in spring and early summer. With the cooling of the air from late fall to early March, the plant is going to be entered the stage of growth stagnation. Due to the evergreen nature of the plant, the fodder of this plant can be used for feeding livestock in the fall and winter seasons, when there is a lack of fresh fodder. This research determined that there is a possibility of growing and developing cactus plant as a new plant in Shahmaran region with a subtropical climate. Also, through cultivation of this plant with low water consumption, part of the fodder shortage for livestock in Kerman province can be resolved.
Breeding plants for stress conditions
Ahmad Shahizadeh; Rasool Asghari Zakaria; Marefat Ghasemi K.; Parisa Sheikhzadeh Mosaddeq
Abstract
Introduction
Drought stress is the most critical cause of wheat yield reduction in semi-arid regions. Drought affects wheat yield somewhat during the growing season, but yield reduction predominantly occurs during the reproductive and grain-filling stages. This research aimed at the identification of ...
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Introduction
Drought stress is the most critical cause of wheat yield reduction in semi-arid regions. Drought affects wheat yield somewhat during the growing season, but yield reduction predominantly occurs during the reproductive and grain-filling stages. This research aimed at the identification of end-season drought stress-tolerant wheat genotypes based on tolerance and sensitivity indices using the ideotype genotype selection index (IGSI) and the multi-trait genotype–ideotype distance index (MGIDI) multi-trait selection indices.
Materials and methods
In this study, 18 bread wheat genotypes and two control cultivars were evaluated based on a randomized complete block design with three replications under two conditions: full irrigation and end-season drought stress. The experiment was conducted at the Ardabil Agricultural Research Station during the 2021-2022 season. The genotypes were sown in plots of 2.5 m × 3 m with a row spacing of 20 cm. The full-irrigation treatment received 100% of the crop's water requirement, while in the drought stress treatment, the irrigation stopped after heading. Standard agronomic practices were followed throughout the growing season and data on traits such as yield were recorded. Tolerance and stress indices, including tolerance index (TOL), mean productivity (MP), stress tolerance index (STI), modified stress tolerance index (MSTI), geometric mean productivity (GMP), harmonic mean (HM), stress susceptibility index (SSI), yield index (YI), yield stability index (YSI), and yield reduction percentage (YRP) were calculated. Statistical analysis was performed using ANOVA, and the means were compared using the least significant difference (LSD) test at the 5% probability level. Additionally, IGSI and MGIDI selection indices were also determined to evaluate the drought tolerance of the genotypes.
Results and discussion
The experiment results indicated that based on lower YRP, TOL, and SSI indices, genotypes 11, 5, 9, and 10 were selected as tolerant genotypes. Nevertheless, genotypes 12, 2, 1, and 6 were superior based on higher STI and Harm indices. Also, genotypes 12, 1, 11, and 3 were best in the k2STI and YI indices. Additionally, genotypes 14, 4, 2, and 6 were tolerant based on the k1STI index, genotypes 11, 9, 5, and 10 in the YSI index, genotypes 2, 12, 14, and 4 in the MP index, and genotypes 12, 2, 4, and 1 in the GMP index. Using the multivariate selection indices of the IGSI and MGIDI, genotypes 11, 5, 1, and 12, with the highest IGSI value and the lowest MGIDI value, are among the genotypes with high end-season drought stress tolerance. This was confirmed through heat map cluster analysis and bi-plot diagram in principle components analysis. Also, genotypes 20, 16, and 19, having the lowest value of IGSI and the highest MGIDI, showed higher sensitivity to drought stress. The comparison of the means of the selected genotypes with the total means showed that these genotypes under the end-of-the-season drought stress conditions performed better in stress conditions (with higher Ys) and had less yield reduction compared to the average of other genotypes.
Conclusion
The ideotype genotype selection index (IGSI) and the multi-trait genotype–ideotype distance index (MGIDI) for different genotypes based on the quantitative indices of tolerance and stress show that genotype 11, having a high value of IGSI and the lowest value of MGIDI is the most tolerant to end-season drought stress. The genotypes 5, 1, and 12 were ranked next. Based on these results, it is clear that different genotypes exhibit varying levels of drought tolerance based on the indices evaluated. Overall, the results of this experiment provide valuable insights into the potential for improving drought tolerance in wheat through the selection of tolerant genotypes using IGSI and MGIDI indices. The selected genotypes can be further evaluated for their agronomic and physiological traits to confirm their suitability for cultivation in drought-prone areas.
Flooding stress
Fatemeh Askari Foroshani; Afrasyab Rahnama; Mousa Meskarbashi; Iman Kamranfar
Abstract
Introduction
Waterlogging stress is a common agricultural problem in many regions across the globe. Crop productivity is threatened primarily by waterlogging in rainfed areas. Plant growth and crop production is constrained severely by waterlogging in many regions around the world. Waterlogging significantly ...
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Introduction
Waterlogging stress is a common agricultural problem in many regions across the globe. Crop productivity is threatened primarily by waterlogging in rainfed areas. Plant growth and crop production is constrained severely by waterlogging in many regions around the world. Waterlogging significantly reduces the grain yield. Moreover, oil yield reduces mainly due to a significant decrese in grain yield under waterlogging stress condition. Waterlogging at different growth stages has different effects on crop growth and yield. In most crop plants, it was shown the different adverse effects of waterlogging on yield determination at the vegetative and reproductive stages. However, the effects of waterlogging stress at different growth stages on safflower under field conditions is not yet known.
Materials and methods
In the current study, in order to study of the influence of waterlogging stress at different growth stages on the morphological traits and grain yield of safflower under field conditions, a field experiment was carried out during 2020-2021 growing season in a split plot arrangement in randomized complete blocks design using three replicates per treatment. The study site was located at the research farm of Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Iran. The plants were grown in the filed to ensure the environmental conditions found in flooded soils. Three waterlogging treatments were applied to plants as main plots: Well-drained controls watered weekly, mild stress (waterlogged for 24 h) and severe stress (waterlogged for 48 h). Waterlogging treatments implemented at the vegetative and reproductive stages as sub plots. After the waterlogging period, waterlogging treatments were watered with sufficient water (80% field capacity) until the end of the experiment.
Results and discussion
The waterlogging treatments at vegetative and reproductive stages significantly decreased biological yield, grain yield, number of sub-branches, branche number, capitulum number per plant, grain number per capitulum, grain number per plant, 1000-grain weight and oil yield. There was no significant difference between growth stages in terms of all traits except for capitulum number per plant and the number of sub-branches. The mild and severe waterlogging stress at both growth stages was led to a significant reduction in grain yield by 34 and 39%, respectively, compared to control. The waterlogging treatments at different growth stages differently reduced the grain yield. The maximum decrease was found when waterlogging occurred for 48 h at the reproductive stage. The reduction in the number of sub-branches was associated with capitulum number per plant and grain number per plant. Under waterlogged conditions, the reduction in capitulum number per plant was mainly due to the decrease in the number of sub-branches.
Conclusion
These findings indicate that safflower is more sensitive to waterlogging at the reproductive stage. The effect of waterlogging stress on grain and oil yield varied between two growth stages and waterlogging durations. Under waterlogging condition, grain yield loss occurred mainly due to a decrease in the number of sub-branches, branch number, capitulum number per plant, grain number per head and grain number per plant, which led to a significant decrease in grain yield and ultimately reducing the oil
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