Effect of different irrigation regimes and planting date on yield and physiological characteristics of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) in the relatively warm and semi-arid region of Dehdasht

Articles in Press

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 M.Sc. in Crop Physiology, Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, Yasouj University, Yasouj, Iran

2 Associate Professor, Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, Yasouj University, Yasouj, Iran

3 Assistant Professor, Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, Yasouj University, Yasouj, Iran

Abstract

Introduction
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) has become highly valued worldwide due to its exceptional nutritional content and resilience in harsh environmental conditions, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. This adaptability makes quinoa a valuable crop option in areas prone to water scarcity and challenging climate conditions. In regions with limited water resources, optimal irrigation strategies and suitable planting dates are crucial for maximizing quinoa's yield and physiological performance. Given these challenges, this study sought to assess the effects of different irrigation regimes and planting dates on yield and key physiological indices of quinoa in the semi-arid climate of Dehdasht, Kohgiluyeh, and Boyer-Ahmad Province, where efficient water use is essential.
 
Materials and methods
The experiment was carried out in 2020 as a split-plot design based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The main plot factor was planting date at three levels: August 5 (early sowing), August 20 (intermediate), and September 5 (late sowing). The sub-plot factor was irrigation regime at three levels based on cumulative evaporation from a Class A evaporation pan: 40 mm, 80 mm, and 120 mm. Irrigation treatments were applied after the establishment phase. The measured parameters included chlorophyll content (a, b, and total), relative water content (RWC), leaf area index (LAI), plant height, number of lateral branches, panicle length, biological yield, grain yield, water use efficiency (WUE), grain protein content, and harvest index (HI).
 
Results and discussion
The analysis of variance revealed that planting date, irrigation regime, and their interaction significantly influenced most traits at the 1% probability level. The highest grain yield (1092 kg.ha⁻¹), plant height (107.2 cm), and relative water content were recorded under irrigation after 40 mm evaporation combined with the August 20 planting date. This combination also led to the highest chlorophyll content, biological yield, and harvest index, indicating optimal physiological functioning and favorable alignment of plant development with environmental conditions. In contrast, the lowest chlorophyll content and grain yield occurred under the 120 mm evaporation treatment and the earliest planting date (August 5), likely due to the combined effects of moisture stress and high temperature during early vegetative growth, which accelerated phenological stages and reduced the growth duration. The late planting date (September 5) exhibited moderately high water use efficiency due to shortened vegetative periods, though yield and harvest index were negatively affected by lower temperatures during the reproductive phase. Interestingly, grain protein content was highest in the most severe water stress (120 mm evaporation), reflecting a compensatory mechanism often observed in crops under drought conditions. Water use efficiency was also maximized in the 120 mm irrigation regime with late sowing, indicating effective use of water under limited availability, albeit at the cost of reduced biomass and yield. These results suggest that planting quinoa on August 20 and irrigating after 40 mm of evaporation provides an optimal balance between growth conditions and water availability, enhancing both physiological efficiency and yield output. The findings emphasize the importance of synchronizing planting schedules with seasonal climatic patterns and selecting appropriate irrigation intervals to achieve sustainable quinoa production in drought-prone areas.
 
Conclusion
In the semi-arid and relatively warm climate of Dehdasht, adjusting the planting date and irrigation regime significantly affected quinoa’s physiological and agronomic performance. The best outcomes were obtained when planting was done on August 20 and irrigation followed 40 mm of evaporation. This strategy offers a practical approach for maximizing quinoa yield while ensuring efficient water use, making it suitable for regions facing increasing water scarcity and climate variability.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

Ahmadi, S.H., Solgi, S., Sepaskhah, A.R., 2019. Quinoa: A super or pseudo-super crop? Evidence from evapotranspiration, root growth, crop coefficients, and water productivity in a hot and semi-arid area under three planting densities. Agricultural Water Management. 225, 105784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2019.105784 
Akhtar, S.S., Andersen, M.N., Liu, F., 2014. Biochar enhances yield and quality of tomato under reduced irrigation. Agricultural Water Management. 138, 37-44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2014.02.016
Arnon, D.E., 1949. Copper enzymes in isolated chloroplasts polyphenol oxidase (Beta vulgaris). Plant Physiology. 24, 1-15.
Arshad, M.N., Ahmad, A., Wajid, A., Rasul, F., Khaliq, T., Awais, M., Fatima, H.N., 2016. Quantification of growth, yield and radiation use efficiency of sunflower at different irrigation and nitrogen levels under semi-arid conditions of Faisalabad. Journal of Agricultural Research. 54, 647-656.
Aslam, M.U., Raza, M.A.S., Iqbal, R., Ahmad, S., Haider, I., Mustafa, A.E.M.A., Rizwana, H., Aghayeva, S., Gruda, N.S., 2025. Significance of selenium in improving the yield and quality of quinoa under drought. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 25. 1466–1479. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-025-02214-4
Bertero, H.D., King, R.W., Hall, A.J., 1999. Photoperiod-sensitive development phases in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.).
Field Crops Research. 60(3), 231–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-290(98)00128-2  
Blum, A., 2009. Effective use of water (EUW) and not water-use efficiency (WUE) is the target of crop yield improvement under drought stress. Field Crops Research. 112(2–3), 119–123.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2009.03.009
Chaves, M.M., Flexas, J., Pinheiro, C., 2009.
Photosynthesis under drought and salt stress: Regulation mechanisms from whole plant to cell. Annals of Botany. 103(4), 551–560.
https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcn125
Deka, K.K., Das Milu, R., Bora, P., Mazumder, N., 2015. Effect of sowing dates and spacing on growth and cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) in subtropical climate of Assam. Indian Journal of Agricultural Research. 49, 250-254.
Emami, A., 1996. Methods of Plant Analysis. Technical Bulletin No. 982. Soil and Water Research Institute, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Tehran, Iran. 130 p. [In Persian]
Ergo, V.V., Lascano Vega, R., Parola, R., Carrera, C.S., 2018. Heat and water stressed field-grown soybean: A multivariate study on the relationship between physiological-biochemical traits and yield. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 148, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2017.12.023
Etebari, A. R., Galeshi, S., Anagholi, A., Torabi, B., 2022. Studying the effect of planting date and density on quinoa plant under saline and dryland conditions. Journal of Crop Production. 15, 219-235. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22069/ejcp.2022.19996.2489  
Flexas, J., Bota, J., Loreto, F., Cornic, G., Sharkey, T.D., 2004. Diffusive and metabolic limitations to photosynthesis under drought and salinity in C3 plants. Plant Biology. 6, 269-27 9. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2004-820867
Gámez, A.L., Soba, D., Zamarreño, Á.M., García-Mina, J.M., Aranjuelo, I., Morales, F., 2019. Effect of water stress during grain filling on yield, quality and physiological traits of Illpa and Rainbow quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) cultivars. Plants, 8, 173. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8060173
Granado-Rodríguez S, Aparicio N, Matías J, Pérez-Romero LF, Maestro I, Gracés I, Pedroche JJ, Haros CM, Fernandez-Garcia N, Navarro del Hierro J, Martin D, Bolaños L and Reguera M., 2021. Studying the impact of different field environmental conditions on seed quality of quinoa: The case of three different years changing seed nutritional traits in southern Spain. Frontiers in Plant Science. 12, 649132.  https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.649132
Gupta, A., Rico-Medina, A., Caño-Delgado, A. I., 2020. The physiology of plant responses to drought. Science, 368(6488), 266–269.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaz7614
Hosseini, S. H., Rahimi Karizaki, A., Biabani, A., Nakhzari Moghaddam, A., Talee, F., 2020. Investigation of physiological growth indices and yield of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) under the influence of different planting dates. Crop Production Journal, 13, 99-116. [In Persian].
Hosseini, S. H., Rahimi Karizaki, A., Biabani, A., Nakhzari Moghaddam, A., Talaii, F., 2021. Investigation of the effect of planting date on phenological stages, morphological characteristics, yield, and yield components of quinoa (Chenopodium Quinoa L.). Journal of Agricultural Crop Production, 14, 17-32. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22069/ejcp.2021.17388.2287
Howell, T.A., 1994. Irrigation Engineering: Evapotranspiration. In: Arntzen, C.J., Ritter, E.M. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Agricultural Science. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, USA, pp. 345–356
Jahanbakhsh, S., Moradi, R., Khajoei-Nejad, G., Naghizadeh, M., 2020. Effect of planting date, drought stress and salicylic acid on yield and biochemical characteristics of quinoa. Iranian Journal of Field Crop Science. 51(4), 55-71.  [In Persian].        https://doi.org/10.22059/ijfcs.2020.284610.654622
Jamshideyni, M., Behdani, M.A., Parsa, S., Khoramdel, S., 2025. Different levels of vermicompost and gamma-aminobutyric acid under drought stress can possitively affect quinoa growth parameters, malondialdehyde content, and amino acids. Plant Productions. https://doi.org/10.22055/ppd.2025.47985.2207
Karami, R., Faraji, H., Movahedi Dehnavi, M., Khoshroo, A. R., 2020. Interaction of nitrogen and plant density on quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) growth and yield. Crop Production Journal, 13, 111-124. [In Persian].
Laouedj, H., Kherraz, K., Touati, S., Messoudi, M., Ghemam Amara, D., Kadour, A., 2023. Effect of plating density on Chenopodium Quinoa Willd growth and yield in desert areas. NeuroQuantology, 21, 997–1006. https://doi.org/10.48047/nq.2023.21.01.NQ20077  
Maliro, M. F. A., Guwela, V. F., Nyaika, J., & Murphy, K. M. (2017). Preliminary studies of the performance of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) genotypes under irrigated and rainfed conditions of Central Malawi.
Frontiers in Plant Science, 8, 227. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.00227
Mamdi, A., Tohkel-Afshari, R., Dadkhahi, E., 2015. Introduction to the Seed Characteristics and Properties of Quinoa: A New Crop for Iran. In: Proceedings of the Third National Congress of Scientific Student Associations of Agriculture and Natural Resources. 6 May 2015, Karaj, Iran [In Persian]
Mendoza V., Mendoza R., Dmitriev D.V., 2023. Introduction and adaptation of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) cultivars in Krasnodar region of Russia. Vegetable Crops of Russia. 6, 117-122. https://doi.org/10.18619/2072-9146-2023-6-117-122
Mirsafi, S.M., Sepaskhah, A.R., Ahmadi, S.H., 2024. Physiological traits, crop growth, and grain quality of quinoa in response to deficit irrigation and planting methods.  BMC Plant Biology. 24, 809 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-024-05523-5
Mishra, A., Choudhuri, M.A., 1999. Effects of salicylic acid on heavy metal-induced membrane deterioration mediated by lipoxygenase in rice. Biologia Plantarum. 42, 409–415. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1002469303670
Mohamadpoor, G., Farzaneh, S., Khomari, S., Raeisi Sadati, S.Y., Seyed Sharifi, R., Esmaielpour, B., Azarshab, K., 2025. Effect of humic acid and seaweed extract application on some biochemical traits of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) under irrigation cut-off in two locations of Kermanshah province. Plant Productions. 48, 105- 123. [In Persian].
Mousavi Sardou, S. F., 2024. The effect of foliar application of glycine betaine on biochemical, physiological, and agronomic traits of quinoa plant (Chenopodium quinoa Wild.) under different irrigation regimes. Crop Science Research in Arid Regions, 6, 139-155. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22034/csrar.2024.457698.1417
Nagib, S.R., Gahory, A.M.O., Hassan, A.A., 2020. Productivity and quality of quinoa yield (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) as affected by planting date and plant spacings.
Scientific Journal of Flowers & Ornamental Plants. 7(4), 541–548. https://doi.org/10.21608/sjfop.2020.139786
Nematpour, E., Eshghizadeh, H. R., 2020. Effect of drought stress, nitrogen chemical fertilization, and planting date on some agro-physiological traits of two millet varieties. Plant Process and Function. 8, 171-186. [In Persian].
Nohong, B., Nompo, S., 2015. Effect of water stress on growth, yield, proline and soluble sugars contents of Signal grass and Napier grass species. American Eurasian Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 9, 14-21.
Raygani, E., Islami, M., 2018. Investigation of the impact of natural (environmental) factors on the formation and sustainability of the historic city of Dehdasht. Iranian-Islamic City Studies. 8, 51-62. [In Persian].
Repo-Carrasco-Valencia, R., Hellström, J.K., Pihlava, J.M., Mattila, P.H., 2010. Flavonoids and other phenolic compounds in Andean indigenous grains: Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), kañiwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule) and kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus). Food Chemistry, 120(1), 128–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.09.087
Saddiq, M. S., Iqbal, S., Hafeez, M. B., Wang, X., Khan, S., 2021. Effect of water stress on grain yield and physiological characters of quinoa genotypes. Agronomy. 11, 1934. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11101934
Salehi, M., Soltani, V., Dehghani, F., 2019. Effect of planting date on phenological stages and grain yield of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) under saline conditions. Environmental Stresses in Crop Sciences. 12, 923-932. [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22077/escs.2019.1514.1341  
Salk Miraji, H., Tavakoli, A., Sepahvand, N.A., 2020. Effect of cytokinin foliar application on morphological traits and yield of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) under optimal irrigation and drought stress conditions. Ecophysiology of Field Crops. 4, 479–498. [In Persian]
Samadzadeh, A., Zamani, G., Fallahi, H.. 2020. Possibility of quinoa production under South-Khorasan climatic condition as affected by planting densities and sowing dates. Applied Field Crops Research, 33, 82-104.  [In Persian]. https://doi.org/10.22092/aj.2020.125793.1392
Shirzadi, N., Nasr Esfahani, M., Haji Hashemi, M., 2021. The identification of physiological and biochemical changes in leaves and shoots of Stevia rebaudiana under low temperature stress. Plant Research Journal (Iranian Journal of Biology), 34(2),467–480. [In Persian]
 Soleimani-Nia, Z., Mohtadi, A., Movahedi Dehnavi, M., 2021. Response of some physiological and morphological traits of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) to zinc application under drought stress conditions. Plant Process and Function Journal. 10, 171-186. [In Persian].
Stoleru, V., Sellami, M.H., Gavrilescu, M., et al., 2023. Worldwide development of agronomic management practices for quinoa cultivation: A systematic review. Frontiers in Agronomy. https://doi.org/10.3389/fagro.2023.1215441
Tang, P., Ren, A., Jiang, Z., Wang, R., Cui, K., Wu, X., Sun, M., 2024. Evaluation of Quinoa varieties for adaptability and yield potential in low altitudes and correlation with agronomic traits. Agronomy. 14, 852. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14040852
Valdivia-Cea, W., Bustamante, L., Jara, J., Fischer, S., Holzapfel, E., Wilckens, R., 2021. Effect of soil water availability on physiological parameters, yield, and seed quality in four quinoa genotypes (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). Agronomy. 11, 1012. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11051012
Yang, A., Akhtar, S. S., Amjad, M., Iqbal, S., Jacobsen, S. E. (2016). Growth and physiological responses of quinoa to drought and temperature stress. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 202(6), 445–453.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jac.12167
Ziaei, S.M., Salimi, K., Amiri, S.R., 2020. Investigation of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) cultivation under different irrigation intervals and foliar spraying in Saravan region. Scientific Journal of Crop Physiology. 12, 113-125. [In Persian].
 
Environmental Stresses in Crop Sciences

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript
Available Online from 14 July 2026

Files

History

  • Receive Date: 28 April 2025
  • Revise Date: 15 August 2025
  • Accept Date: 19 August 2025

Share

How to cite

Statistics